The Final Days

“Therefore, since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us also lay aside every weight and the sin that clings so closely, and let us run with perseverance the race that is set before us, looking to Jesus the pioneer and perfecter of our faith, who for the sake of the joy that was set before him endured the cross, disregarding its shame, and has taken his seat at the right hand of the throne of God.”

          ~ Hebrews 12: 1-2

It is so crazy to think that just under four months ago I was just beginning my journeys in Costa Rica.  Now I am home, trading howler monkeys for howling wind and the tropical sun for dark Alaskan nights (and days).  This truly was a wonderful experience.  I learned so much, and experienced things I never thought I would be doing, from Tarzan swinging through the jungle to watching whales surface right beside our boat.  I learned so much about tropical ecology and conservation, as well as how to formulate, carry out, and write up a scientific research project.

Much of my time in Costa Rica was spent in the Children’s Eternal Rainforest, so it was fitting to finish up our trip with another hike in the cloud forest.  This time we hiked to the San Gerardo field station.  The plan was to spend the night there, and then continue hiking to Arenal National Park, however heavy rainstorms forced us to turn around at the station and head back out the road (I shouldn’t be surprised, we are in the rain forest after all).

Map of the Children's Eternal Rainforest

It was a beautiful hike!  Even in the pouring rain.  At one point the clouds did part enough for us to get a glimpse of the lake we were heading towards, but never enough for us to see the Arenal Volcano.  I hiked most of the way with my friend Sarah.  She is a great hiking buddy, and I hope to be able to hike with her again sometime!  That night at the station we watched a movie and a slide show that Moncho had compiled of all of our adventures.  It was so great to look back and smile at all the wonderful times we had in Costa Rica.  I will miss this group!

Arenal Lake

Sarah in front of the San Gerardo field station

It wouldn't be Costa Rica without some hammocks...

Johel, Alan, and Moncho heading up in the rain

We made it!  Soaking wet and loving life.

The next day we hiked back out and drove to the Arenal hot springs where we spent the afternoon splashing around in the water.  Finally we drove to San Jose for our final dinner and goodbyes.  Most people flew out the next day, however a number stayed to vacation around Costa Rica for a while.  My family flew down to meet me, and I am thankful that I got to spend a week showing them Costa Rica before making my way back home.

The group!

Goodbye Costa Rica! It has been wonderful, I am blessed to have been able to explore God's glorious creation in such a unique and experiential way. Thank you to everyone who made my visit so special!

Save the Haylinobatrachium valerioi!

“In the beginning when God created the heavens and the earth, the earth was a formless void and darkness covered the face of the deep, while a wind from God swept over the face of the waters.  Then God said, ‘Let there be light’; and there was light.  And God saw that the light was good; and God separated the light from the darkness.  God called the light Day and the darkness he called Night.  And there was evening and there was morning, the first day.”

            ~ Genesis 1: 1-5

Studying in Costa Rica has been an incredible experience.  I have climbed in the mangroves, snorkeled with a nurse shark, and spent countless hours walking in the rainforest.  This beautiful country has been my home for the last four months, and I have had a great time and learned so much!  While most of my memories remain positive, much of our lectures were focused on the state of tropical ecosystems and the threats poised towards them.  This piece was written in a manner akin to Michael Pollen’s “Why Bother?” but directed towards people of the developing world.  While cliché at times, and perhaps a little overly dramatic, the message I hope is valid.  In the face of impending doom brought by climate change, we must have some faith in our ability to overcome this adversity and unite for the good of the world.

Why Bother?

“To give anything less than your best is to sacrifice the gift.”

– Steve Prefontaine

Citizens of countries in tropical regions are entrusted with protecting one of the world’s most valuable resources, tropical forests.  These tropical forests provided habitat, food, and other resources to vast numbers of species, many endemic and found no where else on earth.  Costa Rica’s Osa Peninsula alone is home to 5% of the world’s biodiversity.  The intrinsic value of such concentrated biodiversity is priceless, though unfortunately under serious threats of habitat destruction and exploitation. 

Without a doubt the resources of tropical forests are extremely valuable.  These forests maintain the watersheds for people in tropical regions, storing and filtering the water to provide sufficient amount year round that is safe to drink.  The rich biodiversity of the area holds promises of pharmaceuticals yet to be discovered, as 42% of the world’s most popular drugs have already been derived from natural resources.  Biodiversity is also credited with agricultural advancements that have been shown to enhance crop productivity, increasing profits by $1 billion per year.  Additionally, carbon sequestration and storage per unit area is higher for tropical forests than for any other ecosystem in the world.  Therefore maintaining tropical forest area does more to limit the addition of new carbon to the atmosphere than the maintenance of any other ecosystem.  Consequently, slash and burn tactics have turned tropical forests from a carbon sink to a carbon source, and the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere due to deforestation activities are higher than ever.  This amplifies rates of global climate change, and highlights the importance of tropical forests in maintaining the integrity of global ecosystems.

However people of the developing world are often constrained in efforts to protect their precious forests by pressures from transnational companies seeking profit.  Timber companies and cattle ranchers bid for trees and land in tropical areas, leading to alarming deforestation rates and habitat destruction, destroying the watershed and threatening many native species.  Tourism expansion of all inclusive resorts and ecotourism in the most pristine areas are quickly degrading the integrity of the ecosystem, without doing anything to protect the forests.  And the inhabitants of these countries, both citizens and politicians, often feel inept at preventing this change.

So what can we do?  Without governmental support providing backlash to those exploiting resources, with judicial systems that seem to only favor those with the most money, with foreigners coming in and buying up land, only to destroy the natural beauty and leave with money from tourists that should have entered the local economy, why bother with attempts to preserve the lush forests, colorful birds, diverse amphibians, and monumental numbers of dung beetles in rainforest canopies?  In the grand scheme of things, the impacts of one person attempting to control the chaos will do nothing to stop the 12.8 million hectares of old growth forest that are lost per year, or the estimated 380 species that are lost per day as a result of current deforestation.  It is like trying to stop the flow of the mighty Amazon River with a pebble.  Even if a million more are thrown in, the river continues to run, unaware of attempts to impede the movement.

And yet, our hearts still call us to change.  Despite the limited chances of success, despite the thousands of others working against our actions, despite the monumental challenge in halting deforestation, global climate change, and other factors significantly impacting biodiversity loss, we must try.  This is not a valiant attempt at saving the fate of our world; it is not a publicity stunt to earn a spot among the hundreds of other environmental activists; it is humble surrender to the immense responsibility that the people of the tropics have been given, and the solution lies in three key areas: appreciation, protection, and education.

Costa Rica has been a leader in tropical forest conservation, with 800,000 Ha of tropical forests protected in reserves and national parks, however this conservation would not have been possible without the conversation that preceded it.  For protection to occur, the people of the area must first recognize the intrinsic value of tropical ecosystems and biodiversity.  Beginning with daily conversations, at home, at work, in the supermarket, the concept of appreciation of nature can slowly become integrated with our views of the world.  Conservation then becomes a facet of life, rather than an aside only contemplated when the conditions are favorable.  Why bother?  Because it is simple, a matter of topic change in a conversation that is already happening.  And slowly the ideas of one individual have power to become tangible change through words exchanged between friends.  Is that not how the 1500’s geocentric belief of earth as the center of the universe was shattered by Galileo’s discoveries of heliocentrism?  One man had an idea, and now billions recognize truth without so much as a backwards glance.

Once appreciation for tropical ecosystems and biodiversity has a firm hold with the people of the region, protection measures can begin to be formulated.  With national support, the public and government can work together with scientists to devise conservation schemes that protect the highest priority areas.  Unified missions of conservation give power to developing countries in tropical regions, which are then able to resist outside pressures of resource exploitation and tourism enterprises that do not directly benefit the local economy.  Finally, education, both local and global, will support maintenance of these conservation measures.  As people around the world recognize the necessity for tropical forests and the interconnectedness of ecosystems and processes, they will be more apt to advocate for and support conservation of earth’s valuable resources. 

And all of this can begin with a conversation.  Why bother?  Because we cannot sit idly by and wait for change to happen for us.  In the words of Mahatma Gandhi “be the change you wish to see in the world.”  If we are truly passionate about the fate of life as we know it, then we will not, cannot, wait for someone else to do things for us.  Beginning with humans in the tropics, the message for preservation and conservation of tropical ecosystems will permeate into all levels of thought by people all around the world, and with this unified cause, we will be unstoppable.  The impacts of one person are not to be ignored, and the hope for positive change is amplified with each person who listens, learns, and acts towards a brighter future.  We have each been endowed with a responsibility.  What are you going to do with it?

EFN nectar production and herbivore defense tradeoffs in Passiflora biflora

“But those who wait for the LORD shall renew their strength, they shall mount up with wings like eagles, they shall run and not be weary, they shall walk and not faint.”

            ~ Isaiah 40:31

The final bit of our program focused on independent research.  We each formulated a research proposal, and then collected data for four weeks while in our homestays before returning to the station for the data analysis and report.  I studied extra floral nectar production and other herbivore defense mechanisms in a species of passion vine (Passiflora biflora).  This was my first real taste of research (a very different experience from a research assistant).  I decided I wanted to be a biologist in 6^th grade when I joined Science Olympiad, now here I am 10 years later conducting an independent research project in Costa Rica!  Here is a summary of my study and findings.

Passion vine (Passiflora biflora) growing in the
Selvatura Butterfly Garden in Monteverde, Costa Rica

Leaf toughness universally protects plants from herbivory, however newly formed leaves require time to toughen before this defense is effective.  Passion vines produce cyanide to deter generalist herbivores from damaging young leaves.  Additionally, many specialized defense mechanisms have evolved that target parasitic Heliconiine butterfly larvae.  In Passiflora biflora, this includes nectar production in extra floral nectaries (EFNs) that attracts ants that prey upon the Heliconiine caterpillars.  Increased nectar production may compensate defenses for leaves with low cyanide concentrations, or young leaves that lack toughness, to deter herbivory.  Alternatively, variation in nectar volume may by due to morphological differences in leaves that result in more surface area or leaf water content.  Defense mechanisms are costly; therefore the fitness of the plant may be compromised if resources are allocated excessively where defense is not needed.  My study examined evidence for investment tradeoffs in P. biflora, focusing on leaf toughness, cyanide concentration, and nectar production as the primary defense mechanisms.  Additionally I looked at factors potentially influencing nectar production in P. biflora, including leaf morphology, branch position, and active leaf production.

Nectar produced by EFNs on a leaf of P. biflora

I conducted this study in the Monteverde and Selvatura Butterfly Gardens in Monteverde, Costa Rica, where P. biflora can be found in large enclosures with Heliconiine butterflies.  Branches of P. biflora were chosen that varied in leaf morphology, branch position, and new leaf production.  Two different types of leaf morphology were observed in individual plants of P. biflora in this study, and were characterized as ‘wide morph’ and ‘thin morph.’ Branch position was determined as the spatial arrangement of the tip of the branch.  Branches climbing vertically were noted as ‘up’, branches hanging vertically as ‘down’, and branches growing horizontally as ‘flat.’  Finally, presence or absence of new growth was examined for each branch.

Thin (left) and wide (right leaf morphologies in P. biflora vines

Leaf age was measured by relative leaf position.  The first fully expanded leaf at the tip of each branch was youngest and was denoted as position 1, and the position of each consecutive leaf determined as the number of leaf nodes from position 1.  Leaf width was measured as the widest portion of the leaf.  Number of EFNs present was counted, and percent herbivory on each leaf was recorded.  Finally, nectar was collected using microcapillary tubes and the sucrose content was measured using a sucrose refractometer.

Nectar collected using microcapillary tubes

From there I went to the lab and measured leaf toughness using a leaf penetrometer.  Leaves were placed between two metal plates with a hole in the center allowing a rod to enter through the hole and rest on top of the leaf.  The rod supported a platform, which held a cup that was gradually filled with water until the rod punctured the leaf.  The total weight supported by the leaf was recorded and used as a measure of toughness.

Leaf penetrometer

Cyanide concentrations were determined using a sodium picrate test.  Test strips were exposed to cyanide in crushed leaf tissue, and then dipped in water to elute the cyanide.  The concentration was measured using a spectrophotometer and calculated using a standard curve developed by a previous student.

Sodium picrate test

Pairwise correlations indicated strong evidence for tradeoffs in defense.  Leaf age, percent herbivory, nectar volume, sucrose concentration, toughness, and cyanide concentrations were all correlated in leaf samples of P. biflora.  Percent herbivory, percent sucrose, and toughness were all positively correlated with leaf age.

Alternatively, nectar volume and cyanide concentrations were both negatively correlated with age.

Leaf morphology was found to impact nectar production in P. biflora.  Leaves exhibiting the wide morphology were found to produce significantly more nectar than leaves exhibiting the thin morphology for a given leaf age.

Branch placement also impacted nectar production.  Leaves on branches hanging down produced more nectar than leaves on branches in either the up or flat positions.

Finally, leaves on branches actively producing new leaves were not found to produce significantly more or less nectar than leaves on branches without new growth.

Evidence for trade-offs in herbivore defenses is clear in P. biflora, as correlations were found between leaf age, toughness, percent herbivory, cyanide concentrations, nectar volume, and percent sucrose.  Leaf toughness increases with leaf age, making youngest leaves most susceptible to herbivory because they have not had adequate time to toughen.  Older leaves exhibited higher herbivory because herbivory effects are cumulative and will be preserved through the life of the leaf.  As leaves age and become less susceptible to herbivory, investment in defense is reduced and those resources are allocated to newer leaves, which was displayed by higher cyanide concentrations and nectar volumes in young leaves.

Nectar production was influenced by leaf morphology and branch position.  Leaves of the wide morph produced more nectar than leaves with thin morphology.  Visually, wide leaves were observed to have greater leaf area than thin leaves of comparable ages.  Larger leaf area corresponds to more photosynthetic potential, more surface area for transpiration, and higher water storage capacity in leaves capable of producing nectar, all of which could account for increased nectar production in the wide morph.  Additionally, branches hanging down could have experienced increased EFN output because nectar flow is influenced by gravity, and water moving through branches oriented downward would allow more water to collect in EFNs on those leaves.

While tradeoffs in defense are observable, limitations in these trends occur.  Nectar production was not correlated with cyanide concentration, indicating the highly variable nature of these defenses. Additionally, some variation in nectar production appears to be beyond the plant’s control, as physics also plays a role.  This highlights the importance of multiple defenses in young leaves most susceptible to herbivory, possibly making cyanide a more reliable deterrent given the variable nature of EFN output.  As leaves toughen to avoid herbivory, cyanide concentrations were found to significantly decrease, while nectar production was not correlated with leaf toughness, and many young leaves failed to produce nectar at all.  This could reflect investment decisions by the plant: unprotected leaves are “cheaters” and butterflies may not be able to recognize this.  Alternatively nectar production may be induced by herbivore activity, thereby saving the plant resources until they are needed.

Defense mechanisms in plants are constantly being rewritten under pressures by herbivores.  Eventually leaves toughen, but until they do cyanide and EFN nectar are primary defenses.  Nonetheless these defenses are not all encompassing, and some leaves remain unprotected from herbivory.  This is especially true for leaves with thin leaf morphology, or on branches that are climbing, as these leaves secrete less nectar.  These leaves could be more likely to suffer from herbivore attack, or they may benefit from other leaves displaying protection while avoiding resource investment themselves.  Tradeoffs in defense are prevalent, but not perfect, allowing the cycle of plant defense and herbivore response to continue to coevolve in conjunction with one another.

Mi Familia

“But truly God has listened, he has given heed to the words of my prayer.  Blessed be God, because he has not rejected my prayer or removed his steadfast love from me.”

            ~ Psalm 66: 19-20

I spent a month in Monteverde living with a host family as part of my Spanish class.  This was more of a challenge than anything else, as at that point I still spoke very little Spanish, and my family didn’t speak any English.  It made for some interesting communication!  I have since become more confident in my Spanish (though I’m sure my grammar is just as terrible) and am able to converse a little more fluently. 

Naomi, Lorenzo, Malory, Katherine, Yolanda, and me!

Here are some pictures of where I lived!

Afuera de la casa

La sala

La cocina

Mi dormitorio

Our final activity for Spanish class was a presentation for our host families.  My class (Elementary Spanish 1) sang Vivir me Vida, currently a popular song in Costa Rica.  People clapped and sang along.  Afterwards I told my family I was ready for the next Karaoke night.  They liked to sing a lot.

Patrick, Allie, and me singing Vivir mi Vida

Quakers

“But to all who received him, all who believed in his name, he gave power to become children of God.”

            ~ John 1:12

I began attending the Quaker meetings during my last month in Monteverde.  Monteverde was settled by a group of Quakers who were escaping the draft in the United States in 1951.  They still maintain a strong presence in Monteverde, though the town has since grown and is mostly Costa Rican residents.  The meetinghouse was in the Monteverde Friend’s School, and was built in a way that reminded me of Birchwood, entirely of wood.  Although I came to Costa Rica to be immersed in the culture and language here, the Quaker people and customs were a very appreciated reminder of home.

The Monteverde Friends School

The Quaker Meetinghouse

I didn’t really know what to expect on my first visit to the Quakers.  Heather and I had read a little about them, and I pulled from what I learned about them in school.  The seating in the meetinghouse was arranged in a circle, with no designation as the ‘front.’  The service here began with hymns.  They had two hymnals, and anyone could request a song, which was then sung a cappella.  I requested Be Thou my Vision, one of my favorite hymns.

After the hymn-sing, everyone sat in silence.  Unlike traditional churches with a pastor, the Quakers believe that the Holy Spirit comes to them in silence, and anyone can reflect aloud at any moment they choose.  They have no sacraments, but receive communion with God through meditation and reflection.  During my first visit I sat through the hour in anticipation, waiting for someone to speak, or for something to happen.  Eventually someone did stand up near the end of the hour.  She spoke about the importance of love, and then someone echoed her reflection in Spanish.  I felt more comfortable with the silence during my second visit (and this is coming from someone who is generally comfortable in silence anyway).  I realize that this form of worship (and all worship really) requires practice.  We are all constantly yearning to refocus our hearts on God, and there are many practices and traditions that allow all different kinds of people to find relationship with Christ, and that is a beautiful thing!  It doesn’t matter how many times I go to church, read the Bible, pray, meditate, sing, or fast, I will never be a perfect Christian.  I will sin time and time again, in Heather’s words, I am broken.  But still I come seeking communion with God, in whatever way I can, though worship, silence, scripture, sermons, or walks in the woods, and Christ pulls me in to his Kingdom, regardless of my flaws.

In the words of the Quakers

I really enjoyed the weekly Quaker meetings.  After a chaotic week of research, classes, family time (in Spanish, which made it particularly stressful), and just the general noise of the world, escaping into the asylum of silence was a cherished gift.

A favorite Quaker hymn (they sang this song a lot)

The last meeting I attended was a joint day between the Quakers and the Catholics.  First the Catholics came to the Quaker meeting, then everyone had lunch together, and finally the Quakers went to the Catholic Mass.  It was a celebration of traditions, and a chance to share each other’s customs.  In the middle they had a big dance.  The Costa Ricans displayed their traditional dance, and then the Quakers taught everyone how to square dance.

Costa Rican dance

Square dancing